How long can you stay out of the US with a passport?
As a U.S. citizen, you can stay abroad for as long as you wish and always have the right to return. CBP officers must admit a U.S. citizen. That's true even if you were to visit a country where U.S. law restricts travel, such as North Korea or Cuba.
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The Issue Date of your passport can be found on the data page of your passport book or on the front of your passport card. Some countries require that your passport be valid at least six months beyond the dates of your trip. Some airlines will not allow you to board if this requirement is not met.
In normal circumstances, you can't travel with a passport that expires in less than six months. However, a country with an active agreement with your destination country may allow it. You may even enter with an expired passport in some countries as long as you still have the document with you.
Air Travel: U.S. citizens (including infants and children) departing from or entering the United States by air are required to present a valid U.S. passport to board an international flight. U.S. citizens departing from a designated Canadian airport can use their NEXUS Card for entry when utilizing a NEXUS kiosk.
There are no penalties. The customs officials might be furious but the only thing they can do is confirm you're citizen and let you back in. As for leaving the US, the US doesn't have exit checkpoints so you can leave on any passport.
There is no set period you must remain outside the USA before returning but: When traveling to the U.S. with the approved ESTA, you may only stay for up to 90 days at a time - and there should be a reasonable amount of time between visits so that the CBP Officer does not think you are trying to live here.
It is not a requirement of the U.S. government. The six-month validity passport rule is a requirement of other countries accepting foreign travelers. The six- month passport validity rule is enforced because nations do not want to risk having travelers and tourists overstaying their passport validity.