If your itinerary was purchased as one ticket (as in: you have only one itinerary and one confirmation number), and the connection time was too short and you miss the second (or third) flight, you can rest easy, no matter what happens. The airline will simply put you onto the next available flight, free of charge.
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As a rule of thumb, on domestic routes, you need a minimum of 45 minutes between flights.
The recommended layover time for international flights is generally longer, as you will have to go through customs and immigration before boarding your next flight. In most cases, a 30-minute layover for domestic flights and an hour for international flights is considered a minimum, or short, layover.
It's really hard to put an exact number on how long you need for your layover. At a minimum, I'd say you should plan for one hour for domestic layovers and two hours for international layovers. But this is not a hard, fast rule! If you have to go through security again on a domestic layover, you might need more time.
Travel advisers say there's a lot to take into account when booking connecting flights, but a general rule of thumb is 60-90 minutes between domestic flights and at least two to three hours for international itineraries.
If the missed connection is the airline's fault (a delayed initial flight due to mechanical problems, for example), the airline should rebook you on the next available flight. If the next outbound flight is the following morning, the airline should either book you on another airline or provide accommodations and meals.
Generally speaking, most airlines will make some kind of efforts to wait for delayed passengers on a connecting flight, though this is not necessarily guaranteed. In some cases, airlines may be able to hold a connecting flight for a period of time, but it is not something that is typically guaranteed by any airline.
As a rule of thumb, on domestic routes, you need a minimum of 45 minutes between flights. That's because you don't have to go through security, customs, and immigration.
Domestic flights - Yes. Keep in mind you will have to go through security again, which may cause you to miss your flight depending on how long your layover is.
It varies. They will often wait a little while, especially if it's the last flight of the day and even moreso if there are multiple passengers making the same connection. I've had Delta wait for me after inbound connection delays on several occasions.
A 30 minute layover is not advisable unless the second flight is the same aircraft continuing onto it's next destination, such as KLM from Amsterdam to Manila with a stop in Taiwan. Passengers disembark and follow a route through the terminal just to re board the same aircraft.
You generally can't receive a refund on a missed flight. Depending on the circumstances of your situation and the terms of your fare, you may receive partial credit or free rebooking, but the only way you're likely to get a full refund is if the airline cancels your flight.
The recommended layover time for domestic flights is normally one hour. However, as previously stated, you may require longer if your flights are booked with two different airlines, if you are traveling to a very busy airport or if you require special assistance.
Most airlines don't charge an outright fee for missed flights. Of course, that doesn't say anything about the lost value of your unused ticket. But you don't have to worry about additional fees on top of the original cost of your flight.
If your flights were booked under one ticket, your bags will be checked through to your final destination. If your flights were booked under separate tickets, you will need to collect your bags and recheck them before your connecting flight.